With each new total solar eclipse comes the opportunity to collect data that will bring us closer to understanding the characteristics of the Sun’s corona. Though we have had some upsets due to weather, we have also had very successful expeditions during which we carried out a number of observations and experiments that provided us with lots of data. To date, each total solar eclipse has provided us with new results in our studies of the Solar corona. What follows are some of the work the group has published in peer-reviewed journals (unless otherwise stated). Higher resolution available through the SAO/NASA ADS Database or upon request. Enjoy! (More to come)
The First Empirical Determination of the Fe10+ and Fe13+ Freeze-in Distances in the Solar Corona (Boe et al. 2018)
Abstract: We report on white light observations of high latitude tethered prominences acquired during the total solar eclipses of 2012 November 13 and 2013 November 3, at solar maximum, with a field of view spanning several solar radii. Distinguished by their pinkish hue, characteristic of emission from neutral hydrogen and helium, the four tethered prominences were akin to twisted flux ropes, stretching out to the limit of the field of view, while remaining anchored at the Sun. Co-temporal observations in the extreme ultraviolet from the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO/AIA) clearly showed that the pinkish emission from the cool (~1e4 – 1e5 K) filamentary prominences was co-spatial with the 30.4 nm He II emission, and was directly linked to filamentary structures emitting at coronal temperatures > 1e6 K in 17.1 and 19.3 nm. The tethered prominences evolved from typical tornado types. Each one formed the core of different types of coronal mass ejections (CMEs), as inferred from coordinated LASCO C2, C3 and STEREO A and B coronagraph observations. Two of them evolved into a series of faint, unstructured puffs. One was a normal CME. The most striking one was a `light-bulb’ type CME, whose three-dimensional structure was confirmed from all four coronagraphs. These first uninterrupted detections of prominence-CME systems anchored at the Sun, and stretching out to at least the edge of the field of view of LASCO C3, provide the first observational confirmation for the source of counter-streaming electron fluxes measured in interplanetary CMEs, or ICMEs.
Tethered Prominence-CME Systems Captured During the 2012 November 13 and 2013 November 3 Total Solar Eclipses (Druckmüller et al. 2017)
Abstract: Heavy ions are markers of the physical processes responsible for the density and temperature distribution throughout the fine-scale magnetic structures that define the shape of the solar corona. One of their properties, whose empirical determination has remained elusive, is the “freeze-in” distance (Rf) where they reach fixed ionization states that are adhered to during their expansion with the solar wind. We present the first empirical inference of Rf for Fe10+ and Fe13+ derived from multi-wavelength imaging observations of the corresponding Fe XI (Fe10+) 789.2 nm and Fe XIV (Fe13+) 530.3 nm emission acquired during the 2015 March 20 total solar eclipse. We find that the two ions freeze-in at different heliocentric distances. In polar coronal holes (CHs) Rf is around 1.45 Rs for Fe10+ and from 1.5 to 2.2 Rs for Fe13+. These first empirical Rf values: (1) reflect the differing plasma parameters between CHs and streamers and structures within them, including prominences and coronal mass ejections; (2) are well below the currently quoted values derived from empirical model studies; and (3) place doubt on the reliability of plasma diagnostics based on the assumption of ionization equilibrium beyond 1.2 Rs.
Dynamics of Large-scale Coronal Structures as Imaged during the 2012 and 2013 Total Solar Eclipses (Alzate et al. 2017)
Abstract: White light images acquired at the peak of solar activity cycle 24, during the total solar eclipses of 2012 November 13 and 2013 November 3, serendipitously captured erupting prominences accompanied by CMEs. Application of state-of-the-art image processing techniques revealed the intricate details of two “atypical” large-scale structures, with strikingly sharp boundaries. By complementing the processed white light eclipse images with processed images from co-temporal Solar Dynamics Observatory/AIA and SOHO/LASCO observations, we show how the shape of these atypical structures matches the shape of faint CME shock fronts, which traversed the inner corona a few hours prior to the eclipse observations. The two events were not associated with any prominence eruption but were triggered by sudden brightening events on the solar surface accompanied by sprays and jets. The discovery of the indelible impact that frequent and innocuous transient events in the low corona can have on large-scale coronal structures was enabled by the radial span of the high-resolution white light eclipse images, starting from the solar surface out to several solar radii, currently unmatched by any coronagraphic instrumentation. These findings raise the interesting question as to whether large-scale coronal structures can ever be considered stationary. They also point to the existence of a much larger number of CMEs that goes undetected from the suite of instrumentation currently observing the Sun.
Large Scale Coronal Structures Captured During the 2012/2013 Total Solar Eclipses (UKSP Nugget, non-refereed, Alzate et al. 2017)
Abstract: Ground based white light images taken during total solar eclipses have many unique advantages, particularly their very high dynamic range spanning tens of solar radii starting from the solar surface. When processed, these high resolution images reveal the finest details of coronal structures down to the spatial resolution of the instrument, which is currently 1-2 arcsec. In this nugget we present an analysis of eclipse data for 2012 and 2013 in the context of co-temporal and space-based observations in order to identify the dynamic events leading up to the appearance of “atypical” large scale structures in the two eclipse images. We find that these structures were formed as a consequence of the passage of CMEs several hours before totality, which were not associated with a filament eruption and lacked a core. The CMEs were clearly distinct from the ones visibly captured during totality in both years.
First Detection of Prominence Material Embedded within a 2e6 K CME Front Streaming away at 100-1500 km/s in the Solar Corona (Ding & Habbal 2017)
Abstract: Coronal mass ejections (CMEs) are the largest and most dynamic explosions detected in the million degree solar corona, with speeds reaching up to 3000 km s−1 at Earth’s orbit. Triggered by the eruption of prominences, in most cases, one of the outstanding questions pertaining to the dynamic CME-prominence system is the fate of the cool 104–105 K ejected filaments. We present spectroscopic observations acquired during the 2015 March 20 total solar eclipse, which captured a plethora of redshifted plasmoids from Fe XIV emission at 2e6 K. Approximately 10% of these plasmoids enshrouded the same neutral and singly ionized plasma below 2e5 K, observed in prominences anchored at the Sun at that time. This discovery was enabled by the novel design of a dual-channel spectrometer and the exceptionally clear sky conditions on the island of Svalbard during totality. The Doppler redshifts corresponded to speeds ranging from under 100 to over 1500 km/s. These are the first comprehensive spectroscopic observations to unambiguously detect a 2e6 K filamentary CME front with inclusions of cool prominence material. The CME front covered a projected area of 2.5×1.5 Rs² starting from the solar surface. These observations imply that cool prominence inclusions within a CME front maintain their ionic composition during expansion away from the Sun.
Discovery of a New Class of Coronal Structures in White Light Eclipse Images (Druckmüller et al. 2014)
Abstract: White light images of the solar corona, taken during total solar eclipses, capture the complex dynamic relationship between the coronal plasma and the magnetic field. This relationship can be recorded on timescales of seconds to minutes, within a few solar radii above the solar surface. Rays, large-scale loops, and streamers, which are the brightest structures in these images, have shaped current models of the coronal magnetic field and solar wind flow. We show in this work how the application of novel image processing techniques to unique high-resolution white light eclipse images reveals the presence of a new class of structures, reminiscent of smoke rings, faint nested expanding loops, expanding bubbles, and twisted helical structures. These features are interpreted as snapshots of the dynamical evolution of instabilities developing at prominence–corona interfaces and propagating outward with the solar wind.
Exploring the Prominence-Corona Connection and its Expansion into the Outer Corona Using Total Solar Eclipse Observations (Habbal et al. 2014)
Abstract: Prominences constitute the most complex magnetic structures in the solar corona. The ubiquitous presence of their seemingly confined dense and cool plasma in an otherwise million-degree environment remains a puzzle. Using a decade of white light total solar eclipse observations, we show how these images reveal an intricate relationship between prominences and coronal structures both in their immediate vicinity, known as coronal cavities, and in the extended corona out to several solar radii. Observations of suspended prominences and twisted helical structures spanning several solar radii are central to these findings. The different manifestations of the prominence–corona interface that emerge from this study underscore the fundamental role played by prominences in defining and controlling the complex expansion and dynamic behavior of the solar magnetic field in the neighborhood of magnetic polarity reversal regions. This study suggests that the unraveling of prominences and the outward expansion of the helical twisted field lines linked to them could be the solar origin of twisted magnetic flux ropes detected in interplanetary space, and of the mechanism by which the Sun sheds its magnetic helicity. This work also underscores the likely role of the prominence–corona interface as a source of the slow solar wind.
From Forbidden Coronal Lines to Meaningful Coronal Magnetic Fields (Judge et al. 2013)
Abstract: We review methods to measure magnetic fields within the corona using the po- larized light in magnetic-dipole (M1) lines. We are particularly interested in both the global magnetic-field evolution over a solar cycle, and the local storage of magnetic free energy within coronal plasmas. We address commonly held skepticisms concerning angular ambiguities and line-of-sight confusion. We argue that ambiguities are, in principle, no worse than more familiar remotely sensed photospheric vector fields, and that the diagnosis of M1 line data would benefit from simultaneous observations of EUV lines. Based on calculations and data from eclipses, we discuss the most promising lines and different approaches that might be used. We point to the S-like [Fe XI] line (J =2 to J =1) at 789.2 nm as a prime target line (for the Advanced Technology Solar Telescope (ATST) for example) to augment the hotter 1074.7 and 1079.8 nm Si-like lines of [Fe XIII] currently observed by the Coronal Multi-channel Polarimeter (CoMP). Significant breakthroughs will be made possible with the new generation of coronagraphs, in three distinct ways: i) through single-point inversions (which encompasses also the analysis of MHD wave modes), ii) using direct comparisons of synthetic MHD or force-free models with polarization data, and iii) using tomographic techniques.
Enhancing Coronal Structures with the Fourier Normalizing-Radial-Graded Filter (Druckmüllerova et al. 2011)
Abstract: Images of the corona have a high dynamic range which is excellent for quantitative photometric analysis. To understand the processes governing the solar corona, it is essential to have information about the absolute brightness as well as the underlying structure. However, due to the steep radial gradient of brightness in the images, and to the fact that structures closer to the solar disk have higher contrast than structures further from the disk, human vision cannot view the intricate structure of the corona in such images. The recently developed normalizing-radial-graded filter (NRGF) is an effective way for revealing the coronal structure. In this work, we present a more adaptive filter inspired by the NRGF, which we call the Fourier normalizing-radial-graded filter (FNRGF). It approximates the local average and the local standard deviation by a finite Fourier series. This method enables the enhancement of finer details, especially in regions of lower contrast. We also show how the influence of additive noise is reduced by a modification to the FNRGF. To illustrate the power of the method, the FNRGF is applied to images of emission from coronal forbidden lines observed during the 2010 July 11 total solar eclipse. It is also successfully applied to space-based observations of the low corona in the extreme ultraviolet and to white light coronagraph observations, thus demonstrating the validity of the FNRGF as a new tool that will help the interpretation of the information embedded in most types of coronal images.
Exploring the Physics of the Corona with Total Solar Eclipse Observations (Habbal et al. 2011)
Abstract: This white paper is a call for a concerted effort to support total solar eclipse observations over the next decade, in particular for the 21 August 2017 eclipse which will traverse the US continent. With the recent advances in image processing techniques and detector technology, the time is ripe to capitalize on the unique diagnostic tools available in the visible and near infrared wavelength range to explore the physics of the corona. The advantage of coronal emission lines in this wavelength range, over their extreme ultraviolet counterparts, is (1) the significant radiative component in their excitation process (in addition to the colli- sional excitation), which allows for observations out to a few solar radii, (2) the higher spectral selectivity available for imaging, giving well-defined temperature responses for each bandpass (one line as opposed to many), and (3) the capability of polarization measurements in a number of spectral lines. Consequently, the evolution of the thermodynamic and magnetic properties of the coronal plasma can be explored starting from the solar surface out to a few solar radii, namely the most important region of the corona where the expansion of the solar magnetic field and the acceleration of the solar wind occur. Since the planning of eclipse observations will not be possible without the invaluable NASA-published total solar eclipse bulletins by Espenak and Andersen, a call is also made to ensure continued support for these efforts.
Thermodynamics of the Solar Corona and Evolution of the Solar Magnetic Field as Inferred from the Total Solar Eclipse Observations of 2010 July 11 (Habbal et a. 2011)
Abstract: We report on the first multi-wavelength coronal observations, taken simultaneously in white light, Hα 656.3 nm, Fe IX 435.9 nm, Fe X 637.4 nm, Fe XI 789.2 nm, Fe XIII 1074.7 nm, Fe XIV 530.3 nm, and Ni XV 670.2 nm, during the total solar eclipse of 2010 July 11 from the atoll of Tatakoto in French Polynesia. The data enabled temperature differentiations as low as 0.2e6 K. The first-ever images of the corona in Fe IX and Ni XV showed that there was very little plasma below 5e5 K and above 2.5e6 K. The suite of multi-wavelength observations also showed that open field lines have an electron temperature near 1e6 K, while the hottest, 2e6 K, plasma resides in intricate loops forming the bulges of streamers, also known as cavities, as discovered in our previous eclipse observations. The eclipse images also revealed unusual coronal structures, in the form of ripples and streaks, produced by the passage of coronal mass ejections and eruptive prominences prior to totality, which could be identified with distinct temperatures for the first time. These trails were most prominent at 1e6 K. Simultaneous Fe X 17.4 nm observations from Proba2/SWAP provided the first opportunity to compare Fe X emission at 637.4 nm with its extreme-ultraviolet (EUV) counterpart. This comparison demonstrated the unique diagnostic capabilities of the coronal forbidden lines for exploring the evolution of the coronal magnetic field and the thermodynamics of the coronal plasma, in comparison with their EUV counterparts in the distance range of 1–3 Rs. These diagnostics are currently missing from present space-borne and ground-based observatories.
Mapping the Distribution of Electron Temperature and Fe Charge States in the Corona with Total Solar Eclipse Observations (Habbal et al. 2010)
Abstract: The inference of electron temperature from the ratio of the intensities of emission lines in the solar corona is valid only when the plasma is collisional. Once collisionless, thermodynamic ionization equilibrium no longer holds, and the inference of an electron temperature and its gradient from such measurements is no longer valid. At the heliocentric distance where the transition from a collision-dominated to a collisionless plasma occurs, the charge states of different elements are established, or frozen-in. These are the charge states which are subsequently measured in interplanetary space. We show in this study how the 2006 March 29 and 2008 August 1 eclipse observations of a number of Fe emission lines yield an empirical value for a distance, which we call Rt , where the emission changes from being collisionally to radiatively dominated. Rt ranges from 1.1 to 2.0 Rs , depending on the charge state and the underlying coronal density structures. Beyond that distance, the intensity of the emission reflects the distribution of the corresponding Fe ion charge states. These observations thus yield the two-dimensional distribution of electron temperature and charge state measurements in the corona for the first time. The presence of the Fe X 637.4 nm and Fe XI 789.2 nm emission in open magnetic field regions below Rt , such as in coronal holes and the boundaries of streamers, and the absence of Fe XIII 1074.7 nm and Fe XIV 530.3 nm emission there indicate that the sources of the solar wind lie in regions where the electron temperature is less than 1.2e6 K. Beyond Rt, the extent of the Fe X [Fe+9] and Fe XI emission [Fe+10], in comparison with Fe XIII [Fe+12] and Fe XIV [Fe+13], matches the dominance of the Fe10+ charge states measured by the Solar Wind Ion Composition Spectrometer, SWICS, on Ulysses, at −43º latitude at 4 AU, in March–April 2006, and Fe+9 and Fe+10 charge states measured by SWICS on the Advanced Composition Explorer, ACE, in the ecliptic plane at 1 AU, at the time of both eclipses. The remarkable correspondence between these two measurements establishes the first direct link between the distribution of charge states in the corona and in interplanetary space.
Total Solar Eclipse Observations of Hot Prominence Shrouds (Habbal et al. 2010)
Abstract: Using observations of the corona taken during the total solar eclipses of 2006 March 29 and 2008 August 1 in broadband white light and in narrow bandpass filters centered at Fe X 637.4 nm, Fe XI 789.2 nm, Fe XIII 1074.7 nm, and Fe XIV 530.3 nm, we show that prominences observed off the solar limb are enshrouded in hot plasmas within twisted magnetic structures. These shrouds, which are commonly referred to as cavities in the literature, are clearly distinct from the overlying arch-like structures that form the base of streamers. The existence of these hot shrouds had been predicted by model studies dating back to the early 1970s, with more recent studies implying their association with twisted magnetic flux ropes. The eclipse observations presented here, which cover a temperature range of 0.9 to 2e6 K, are the first to resolve the long-standing ambiguity associated with the temperature and magnetic structure of prominence cavities.
On the Constancy of the Electron Temperature in the Expanding Corona Throughout Solar Cycle 23 (Habbal et al. 2010)
Abstract: A recent analysis of Fe emission lines observed during the total solar eclipses of 2006 March 29 and 2008 August 1 established the first empirical link between the electron temperature in the expanding corona and Fe charge states measured in interplanetary space. In this Letter, we use this link to infer this temperature throughout solar cycle 23 from in situ charge state measurements from the Solar Wind Ion Composition Spectrometer (SWICS) on the Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE) and on Ulysses. The distribution of the SWICS/ACE Fe charge states, which span cycle 23 from 1998 to 2009, is skewed with a peak centered on Fe+8, Fe+9, and Fe+10 and a tail spanning Fe+12 to Fe+20. An iterative process based on this distribution and on the Fe ion fraction as a function of electron temperature yields a narrow peak at 1.1e6 K. The tail in the measured charge state distribution is attributed to the sporadic release of material hotter than 2e6 K from closed magnetic structures within the bulges of streamers. The Fe Ulysses charge state measurements between 1992 and 1997 from cycle 22 peaked at Fe+11, indicative of a slightly higher temperature of 1.5e6 K. The relative constancy of the electron temperature in the expanding corona throughout solar cycle 23 points to the presence of an unknown mechanism regulating the energy input to electrons in the acceleration region of the solar wind at all latitudes during this cycle.
Localized Enhancements of Fe+10 Density in the Coronaas Observed in Fe Xi 789.2 nm During the 2006 March 29 Total Solar Eclipse (Habbal et al. 2007)
Abstract: The first ever image of the full solar corona in the Fe XI 789.2 nm spectral line was acquired during the total solar eclipse of 2006 March 29. Several striking features stand out in the processed image: (1) The emission extended out to at least 3 Rs in streamers. (2) A bubble-like structure, occupying a cone of about 45º and reaching out to 1 Rs above the limb, was observed southward of a bright active region complex close to the limb. (3) Localized intensity enhancements were found in different parts of the corona at heights ranging from 1.2 to 1.5 Rs. (4) Striations extended out to the edge of the field of view above an almost north-southYoriented prominence. Comparison with the corre- sponding white-light image taken simultaneously during the eclipse showed no evidence for these localized enhancements, and the bubble-like structure and striations, while present, did not stand out in the same manner. The extent of the Fe XI emission is attributed to the dominance of radiative over collisional excitation in the formation of that spectral line. The localized intensity enhancements, observed only in Fe XI and not in white light, are a signature of localized increases in Fe+10 density relative to electron density. These are the first observations to show direct evidence of local- ized heavy ion density enhancements in the extended corona. They point to the importance of implementing observations of the Fe XI 789.2 nm line with existing or future coronagraphs for the exploration of the physical processes controlling the behavior of heavy ions in different source regions of the solar wind.